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Wednesday 19 November 2014

Contemporary Dynasties of Guptas

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Maukharis Dynasty
Naga Dynasty
Magha Dynasty
Vaktataka Dynasty

Contemporary Dynasties of Guptas Include the following:

Maukharis Dynasty

Maukharis or Mokharis or Mukharas is an ancient family, which seems to be the vassals of Guptas earlier. This dynasty was concentrated around modern Uttar Pradesh and a portion of Southern Bihar.

Naga Dynasty

Naga family became prominent in Modern Uttar Pradesh and Gwalior by third century AD and remained in existence till end of 4^th century. The prominent rulers of this dynasty are Nagadatta and Achyuta. The Mathura and Gwalior dominions of the Nagas was annexed to Gupta Kingdom by SamudraguptaSamudragupta (reign 335-380 AD) was son of Chandragupta –I and Kumaradevi. He ascended the throne in 335 AD. Before his death, probably 4 or 5 ......

Magha Dynasty

Magha dynasty ruled around Kaushambi and they were contemporary of Guptas. The rulers such as Nava is known by coins only.

Vaktataka Dynasty

Vaktaka dynasty was the most important follow up dynasty of the Satavahanas and they ruled in modern Maharastra and Madhya Pradesh. They were contemporary of Guptas. Vindhyashakti, whose name is derived from the Vidhya Mountains, founded Vaktaka dynasty. Pravarasena was an able ruler who is also known to be the real founder of this dynasty. One of the important ruler of this dynasty was Rudrasena I who is mentioned in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription. Rudrasena I was followed by Prathivisena I. During the campaign of Chandragupta II against the western Satraps, Chandragupta II is considered to have alliance of Prathivisena I and later cemented this tie with a marital alliance giving his daughter Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II, the prince of Vaktaka Family. The capital of Vaktataka during the reign of Prathivisena and Rudrasena II was Nandivardhana, which is near modern Nagpur.

The Huna Invasions

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The Huna Invasions on India during Gupta Era
Toramana : The early white Huna King
Mihirkula: The Huna Tyrrant
- Who was Yasodharman?

The Huna Invasions on India during Gupta Era

The Hunas had poured down from the steppes of Central Asia through the Northwestern passes and devastated the smiling cities of India. These central Asian hordes were in four cardinal directions they were known as follows:

Northern Huna - Black Huna
Southern Huna - Red Huna
Eastern Huna - Celestial Hunas
Western Hunas - White Hunas.

The nomad Mongol tribes known as Huns have found first mention in the Bhishma parva of Mahabharta. As per Dr V. A. Smith, the sholkas that mention the Hunas must have been placed after editing in 4^th or 5^th century AD. In Mahabharta these tribes have been mentioned as Malechhas and Malechhas included several tribes such as Sakas, Yavanas, Savaras, Savaras, Paundras and Kiratas,Khasas, Chivukas, Pulindas, Chinas etc. Practice of Polyandry was common in Hunas (several husbands one wife).

The Hunas moved westwards and divided into two major streams. One directed towards the valley of Oxus (today known as Amu Darya, a boundary between Iran and Central Asia and in Indian texts known as Vaksu) and another towards Volga River (Westwards towards Europe). The latter are thought to have poured into Eastern Europe and forced the Goths to the south and causing the Gothic wars, indirectly. Hunas filled the land between Volga and Danube but they could not make full use of their advantageous position. The Hunic Empire in Europe was finished within 20 years by a fresh swarm of barbarians from Northern Asia.

However, the Asiatic domain of the Hunas lasted a bit longer. In Persia (Iran), the former are known to have attacked the Sassanid King of Persia, Peroz I and captured him. Peroz I was killed in the hands of Hunas and these Hunas assailed the Kushan Kingdom of Kabul and then from from there poured into India. Around 500 AD, Hunas under a chieftain Ramanila is known to have conquered Gandhara. About Ramanila, we know only through his coins. Later, the Huna Power in Punjab regions is known to have consolidated under Toramana.

Toramana : The early white Huna King

We know about the 6th century White Huna King Toramana from Kura Inscription in which his name is mentioned as Rajadhiraja Maharaja Toramana Shahi Jaula. He has also been referred in Rajtarangini. The silver coins of Toramana are very much similar to the Gupta Kings. It is thought that Toramana invaded the Gupta Empire with the help of a scion of the Gupta family called Harigupta. Moreover, the feudal structure of the administration was a facilitating factor for Huna's conquest. Toramana acquired the Malwa region by 510 AD and the local prince Bhanugupta was unable check him.

Toramana was succeeded by Mihirkula, his son.

Mihirkula: The Huna Tyrrant

Mihirkula means "one from the Sun Clan", In Persian Mihirkula refers to Mehr Gul that also refers to Sun Flower. Mihirkula came to power in 510 AD and was an antibuddhist, known for his cruelty against the Buddhists. He destroyed the temples and monasteries and was tyrannical to the Buddhists. His reign extended up to Gwalior. His contemporary Gupta King was Narsimhgupta Baladityaraja II.

Narsimhgupta Baladityaraja II is known to have a devout Buddhist. He fought with Mihirkula and was supported by Yasodharman of Malwa in this fight. Mihirkula was defeated, captured by Yasodharman but was allowed to take refuge in Kashmir where he died shortly afterwards, probably due to a fatal attack by a King of Kashmir. This was the end of White Hunas in India. The year was 528 AD. Thus, Yashidharman is credited to check the Huna expansion in India.

Who was Yasodharman?

We know about Yasodharman from the Mandsor Inscription and Bijaygarh Inscription of Bayana near Bharatpur, in Rajasthan, which was erected / created by Vishnuvarhana, son of Yasodharman. He initially is thought to have been friendly with the Guptas but later turns their enemy and carried his victorious arms. However, not many details are known about Yasodharman. He appeared and disappeared quickly, most probably by 540 AD.

After the Hunas were checked, the Gupta Empire destroyed into many parts and several kings appeared in the scene all over north India. By the mid of the 6th century Guptas lost the control over the MagadhaMost important Mahajanpada was Magadha. Magadha was located near today's Patna & Gaya. The first notable thing about Magadha was its geographical location which gave ..... also. There were many contemporary dynasties of the Guptas and probably most ancient of them is Maukharis.

The Later Guptas

Skandagupta Vikramaditya was the last great Gupta Ruler. He ascended to the throne on 455 AD and is known to have crushed the White HunaThe Huna Invasions on India during Gupta Era The Hunas had poured down from the steppes of Central Asia through the Northwestern passes and devastated the ..... Invasion in the first or early years of his reign itself. Twelve year reign till his death in 467 AD was filled with wars with Hunas and this led to weakening the economyeconomy of his empire which is evident from the low quality of Coins issued during his and his successor's reigns.

The white Hunas invaded from the north-western sides in around 455 AD.

Skandagupta was the mature years and ripe experience, inflicted upon those barbarians, and gave them such as decisive defeat that India was saved for some two decades. However, in 465 a fresh swarm of nomads again poured across the frontiers and is known to have occupied the Gandhara. After death of Skandagupta in 467 AD there were repeated attacks on the heart of the dominions and the empire succumbed to the repeated attacks of the foreigners.

Successors of Skandagupta

Who was successor of Skandagupta is a mystery. The genealogy has been corroborated from four royal seals from Nalanda and one from Bhitari that Purugupta succeeded Skandagupta. When Skandagupta passed away, the empire perished but the dynasty remained. It is thought the Skandagupta could not leave any male capable heir and was succeeded by his half brother Purugupta, who was son of Kumaragupta I and Queen Ananda. The later kings / princes were Kumaragupta III, Buddhagupta and Narsihmgupta. In the western provinces of Malwa, the names of rajas Buddhagupta and Bhanugupta are found. They cover the period of around 484 to 510 AD. The death of Buddhagupta is thought to have occurred in around 495 AD.

It was followed by the accelerated feudalization of the state structure, and the later of these two princes (or Kings) occupy a dependent position probably subordinate to the Huna Chieftains.

Kalidasa

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Works of Kalidasa

There are several stories about life of Kalidasa, though none of them seems to be authentic. However, the most famous story about life of Kalidasa says that Kalidasa was an illiterate idiot and was a dumb fool to start with. A king's daughter was a very learned lady and the story goes as she wanted to marry only a person who will defeat her in "Shastarthaa" (scriptural debate). However, if anyone is not able to defeat her, would be black faced and kicked out of the country.

The idea was enough to irk the Pundits. Nobody wanted to get his face blackened and sent out of the country, so these witty people took Kalidasa to her. These Pundits spotted Kalidasa cutting a branch of a tree on which he was sitting himself.

They told the princess that Kalidasa does only mute or symbolic debates. The debate started and the princess showed him one finger, which she meant that "Shakti is One". However, Kalidasa took its meaning that she will poke his one eye and he showed him two fingers. The princess took this answer to be a valid one manifesting that Shakti is in duality (Shiva and Shakti).

Continuing the debate, princess showed her five fingers manifesting that there are 5 elements earth, water, fire, air, and void. Kalidasa manifested it as that she will slap him. So, in answer he showed her his Fist. The princess again took this as a valid answer as she manifested that all five elements combine and make the body or srusti.

Thus, she married with Kalidasa. But after marriage she came to know that it was a fraudulent marriage and thus kicked him out of the house. After this humiliation, Kalidasa straightaway went to Kali's temple and dedicated himself to Kali. Goddess Kali was appeased and granted him profound wisdom and art and speaking ability. He returned home and his wife spoke these words:

asti kashchit vaag-vishesha

Which literally mean you are an expert now in speaking?

These three words spoken by his wife are the opening words of his three great works as follows:

Asti : Kumarasambhavam starts with asti-uttarasyaam dishi
kashchit : Meghdoot starts with kashchit kaantaa
Vaag : Raghuvamsha starts with vaagarthaaviva

Please note that the above story may be neither historically correct nor there are any evidences to prove it. It goes as it is J, so no need to prove it.

Works of Kalidasa

Mālavikāgnimitram

Mālavikāgnimitram is the Sanskrit play, which depicts Agnimitra as its hero. Malvika is a maid servant whom Agnimitra falls in love. This was known to his chief queen, who imprisions her. Later it was known that Malvika was of a royal birth and she was accepted as queen of Agnimitra. Mālavikāgnimitram gives account of Rajsuya Yajna of Pushyamitra Shunga, father of Agnimitra.

Abhijñānaśākuntalam

Abhijñānaśākuntalam is a Sanskrit play which depicts the story of Dushyanta, king of Hastinapur, and Shakuntala, daughter of the sage Vishwamitra and the apsara Menaka.

Vikramōrvaśīyam

Vikramōrvaśīyam is a Sanskrit Drama which depicts the love story of Puruvas a Vedic King and Urvashi. Puruvas is chosen to reflect the qualitites of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Pururavas is a mythological entity representing Sun and Vikramaditya means the "Glory of Sun".

Raghuvamśa

Raghuvamśa is a Sanskrit epic poem that is a long (19 Sargas) narration of genealogy of Lord Rama's Raghu Vamsa beginning with King Dileep up to Agnivarna.

Kumārasambhava

Kumārasambhava is an epic poem which has 17 sirgs, ot of which only 8 are accepted as his authorship. Kumara or prince is Kartikeya and it refers to birth of Kartikeya, son of shiva and Parvati after a lot of Tapasya to win Shiva who had already won Kamdeva (God of Love). Kartikeya later killed Tarakasur demon who was blessed that he would not be killed by any other than son os Shiva and Parvati.

Ritusamhara

Ritusamhara is again a mini epic poem in Sanskrit which has 6 Sargas. These Sargas refer to 6 seaosns (Ritu) viz, Grisma (Summer) , varsha (Rains), Sharad (Autumn), Hemanta (Cool), Sisira (Winter) and Vasantha (Spring). It mentions the feelings, emotions and experiences of lovers in 6 seasons. Ritusamhara is considered to be the earliest work of Kalidasa.

Meghaduta

Meghaduta means a messenger of Clouds. It's a poem with 11 stanzas. The theme of Meghaduta is a Yaksha, who is subject of Lord Kubera (King of Wealth). His wife is waiting for him at Mount Kalidasa. Kubera at some place in central India exiled the Yaksha and he wishes to send his message to his wife. For that, he convinces a cloud to take his message and pass it on to his wife. The poem narrates about the beautiful sights and visual perceptions he would come across while going northwards to take this message to his wife.

The true beauty and grandeur of the literature in Gupta EraSanskrit literature reached its climax in the Gupta period. This era is known for equal writing of prose and poetry. Sanskrit became the Ligua franca ..... can be seen in the kavyas. The greatest among all the names is Kalidasa who lived in 4th century CE and was contemporary of Chandragupta II. His earliest production was Ritusamhara. But earliest drama was Malvikagnimitram. Meghaduta is pioneer Dutakavya in Sanskrit literature. Kumarasambhava and Raghuvamsa have the epic grandeur. Kumarasambhava deals with the union of Shiva and Parvati and birth of their son Kartikeya who destroyed Tarakasur.

Raghuvamsa described the life and career of 28 kings of Raghu Dynasty which included Rama. The Prakrit Poem Setubandha is believed to have been written/ revised by Kalidasa for king Pravarsena. Malvikagnimitra, Vikramovarshiyam and Abhijanan-Shakuntalam are three plays penned by Kalidasa. Please note that Kalidasa's style was imitated by Ceylon King Kumaradasa, who has written Janakiharana. Kalidasa wrote Malvikagnimitra which accounts the celebration of Vasantotsava (Spring festival).

Literature in Gupta Era

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Sanskrit literature reached its climax in the Gupta period. This era is known for equal writing of prose and poetry. Sanskrit became the Ligua franca of India in that era. The final editing of the Ramayana and Mahabharta took place in Gupta Period. Puranas, Smritis and Dharmashashtra literature was developed in the Gupta period. Yajnavalkyasmriti is almost regarded as the official law book of Guptas. Naradasmriti was also written during the Gupta period. All the successive redactions in the Manu's Dharmashastras were carried out in Gupta Period.

Kalidasa

The true beauty and grandeur of the literature in Gupta Era can be seen in the kavyas. The greatest among all the names is Kalidasa who lived in 4th century CE and was contemporary of Chandragupta II. His earliest production was Ritusamhara. But earliest drama was Malvikagnimitram. Meghaduta is pioneer Dutakavya in Sanskrit literature. Kumarasambhava and Raghuvamsa have the epic grandeur. Kumarasambhava deals with the union of Shiva and Parvati and birth of their son Kartikeya who destroyed Tarakasur.

Raghuvamsa described the life and career of 28 kings of Raghu Dynasty which included Rama. The Prakrit Poem Setubandha is believed to have been written/ revised by Kalidasa for king Pravarsena. Malvikagnimitra, Vikramovarshiyam and Abhijanan-Shakuntalam are three plays penned by Kalidasa. Please note that Kalidasa's style was imitated by Ceylon King Kumaradasa who has written Janakiharana. Kalidasa wrote Malvikagnimitra which accounts the celebration of Vasantotsava (Spring festival). Read more about Kalidasa here.

Bhāravi

Bhāravi is best known for Kiratarjuniya, written around 550 CE. Kirat is Shiva who speaks to arjuna in for form of a mountain dwelling hunter. This epic style Kavya is considered to be among the greatest works in Sanskrit which is known for complexity of the Sanskrit.

Bhatti

Bhatti or Batsabhatti is best known for Bhaṭṭikāvya which is also known as Rāvaṇavadha and was written in the 7th century CE.

Magha:

Śiśupāla-vadha was written by Magha in 7th century AD and is one of the 6 Sanskrit Mahakavyas. It was inspired by the works of Kalidasa, Bharavi and Dandin, all of them, as the author says but surpasses Bharavi in his style and wordplay.

Sudraka

Mrichhakatika means a "little clay cart'. It is a Sanskrit play written by Shudraka in the 2nd century AD. Arthur W. Ryder translated it in 1905 as The Little Clay Cart. It's a play full with romance, sex, court politics and comedy. It depicts the story of a poor man Charudatta with a nagarvadhu Vasantsena. The play seems to be a reworked version of Daridracharudatta, another play. Śudraka seems to be an Abhira King Indranigupta who used Shudraka as his pen name.

There is a description of a civil court in Mrichhakatika, whose headquarters were at Nalanda.

Vishakhadatta:

We know about only two plays of Vishakhadatta viz. Mudrārākṣasa and the Devichandraguptam. Out of them Mudrārāksasa is the only surviving play. Devichandraguptam is survived in fragments only. Mudrarakshasha means "Ring of the Demon". It narrates the ascent of Chandragupta Maurya to throne. Rakshasha is the last Minister of Nandas who is lured in Chandragupta's side, by Chanakya.

Dandin

Dandin had written Kavyadarshana and Dasakumarcharita. He lived in Kanchi and is best known for Dasakumarcharita "The Tale of the Ten Princes" which depicts the adventures of 10 princes. Dasakumarcharita was first translated in 1927 as Hindoo Tales and The Adventures of the Ten Princes

Bhatrihari:

Bhartṛhari was a fifth century Sanskrit author who wrote Vakyapadiya , a treatise on Sanskrit Grammar and Satakatraya which is also known as Nitishatak and has 100 verses on philosophy. Batrihari seems to be a King but many scholars say that he was not a king but a courtier serving the king.

Ishwar Krishna:

His main work is Sankyakarika. It was a commentary on Samkhya Philosophy.

Vyasa

Vyasa has written Vyasabhasya , it was a commentary on Yoga philosophy

Vatsyayana

Vatsyayana was the author of Nyaya Sutra Bhashya, which was the first commentary on Gautama's Nyaya Sutras. Kamasutra is a treatise on Human Sexual behavior and makes the part of the Kamashashtra. The first transmission of the Kama Shashra is attributed to Nandi, the bull of Shiva, as per the traditions. The Nandi bull is Shiva's doorkeeper and he overheard the lovemaking of the Gods and recorded his utterances, for benefit of humankind. However, Kama sutra seems to be the first treatise on the principles / advices in sexuality.

Some Smriti works of Gupta Era

Parashara (100-500 CE)
Katyanayan (400-600 CE)
Pitamaha (400-700 CE)
Pulatsya (300-700 CE)
Vyasa (200-500 CE)
Harita (400-700 CE)

Inscriptions of Gupta Era

Gupta era is known for a large number of pillar inscriptions erected at a number of places. Out of them two most important are

Prayag Prasasti : Also known as (Allahabad Pillar Inscription) of SamudraguptaSamudragupta (reign 335-380 AD) was son of Chandragupta –I and Kumaradevi. He ascended the throne in 335 AD. Before his death, probably 4 or 5 ...... Composed by Harisena. Very simple and refined Sanskrit in Champu kavya style.
Garuda Pillar: Garuda Pillar refers to the Mahrauli Pillar Inscription/ Mahrauli Iron Pillar) of Chandragupta II.
Mandsaur Inscription: It is ascribed to Vattasbhatta.
Eran Stone Inscription of Samudra Gupta
Sanchi stone inscription and Mathura stone inscription.
Nalanda Inscription
Gaya Copper Plate (Speaks of Samudra Gupta)
Udayagiri Cave Inscription (Speaks of Chandragupta II & Kumaragupta)
Junagarh Rock inscription speaks of Skandagupta.

Temple Art During Gupta Period

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Gupta Period is called the "Golden age of India" or the "Classical Age of India" partially due to the unprecedented activities and development in the arts, architecture, sculpture, painting and literature.

During Gupta Era, the rock cut architecture reached its zenith and this era marked the beginning of the
Free Standing temple Architecture. Most of the temples built in the Gupta era were carved with representation of Gods (mainly avatara of Vishnu and Lingams) and Goddesses. The most important temple of Gupta era is Dasavatar Temple of Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh.

Following is a brief description of the temples & Stupas of the Gupta Era:

Dasavatara temple, Deogarh Uttar Pradesh

Dasavatara temple is located in Deogarh Village in Lalitpur town in Uttar Pradesh. The temple was discovered by Captain Charles Strahan and was named so by Alexander Cunningham. It depicts the 10 avatara of Vishnu. It is a large and elaborate edifice with typical temple art of Guptas (without Shikhara) and cubical Garbhagriha. This temple has also been linked to the "Sarvatobhadra temple" mentioned in the Vishnudharmottara PuranaThey are late descriptions of ancient legends and consist of history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, ..... by several scholars.

Bhitargaon Temple

Bhitagaon Temple is located in Kanpur District of Uttar Pradesh. It is the oldest remaining Hindu temple, and was built in the Gupta Era in 6th century.

Dhamekha Stupa

The Dhamekha stupa is located at Sarnath, 13 km away from Varanasi. It marks the deer park or Rishipattana where Buddha gave his first sermon. As per an inscription dated 1026 AD, recovered from the site, its older name is Dharmachakra Stupa. Archeologist, Alexander Cunningham in search of a relic casket bored a vertical shaft through it center down to the foundation and at a depth of around 91 centimeter he found a slab with an inscription.....Ye Dharma Hetu Prabhava Hetu.....written in Brahmi script. This inscription is of 6th or 7th century. Below this, one more stupa made of mauryan bricks has been found which gives in indication that AsokaAshokavardhana or Asoka was governor of Taxila and Ujjain during the reign of his father Bindusara. The Sri Lankan texts represent Asoka as "wading through ..... might have commissioned it.

Other Temples

Other temples of the Gupta Era are as follows:

Vishnu Temple of Tigawa Jabalpur
Shiva Temple of Bhumara
Parvati Temple of Nachria Kathura
Mukund Darra Temple of Kota
Lakshaman Temple of Raipur
Shiva Temple of Koh.
Bhitari Temple at Ghazipur

Salient features of the Gupta Temples:

In Gupta period, the basic, characteristic elements of the Indian temple consisting of a square sanctum sanctorum and a pillared porch had emerged.

The Shikhara was not much prominent in the early Gupta temples but was prominent in later Gupta era. There was a single entrance or mandapa or Porch.
Gupta style temple was modeled on the architectural norms of the Mathura school.
Some Other Notes about Gupta Temples
Sanchi temple at Tigwa has a flat roof.
Dasavatar Temple at Deogarh , Bhitargaon temple and Mahadev Temple at Nachna Kuthar have a square tower of Shikhara.
Manyar Math at Rajgriha is a circular temple of Gupta Era.
Main style of temple architecture in i.e. Nagara style and Dravida style actually began from the Gupta era.
The earliest stone temple with Shikhara is Dasavatar Temple at Deogarh.
The Bhitargaon temple at Kanpur is entirely made up of Bricks.

Tuesday 18 November 2014

Religion in Gupta Era

There were several changes in Hindu religion during the Gupta Era. Buddhism was generally prevalent in Northern India including Kashmir, Afghanistan and Swat Valley two centuries prior to Christian era and 2 centuries after it. Jainism was prevailing but did not attain much popularity. Hinduism never ceased to exist and retained the large share of both the popular as well as Royal Favor. It is evident from the coins of Kadphises II, the Kushana emperor who adopted Hinduism with such a great deal that he repeatedly put images of Shiva on his coins and described himself as a devotee of Shiva.

The development of the Mahayana School of Buddhism from the time of Kanishka was in itself a testimony to the reviving power of Brahminical Hinduism. This newer Buddhism was very much common to the Hinduism. The revival of the Sanskrit was first made possible by the western Satraps as evident from the Girnar inscription of Rudradaman, the Saka King who registered his achievements in elaborate Sanskrit. The Gupta Emperors made the Sanskrit fostered by the Satraps in the 4^th and 5^th century AD.

In Gupta empire both Buddhism and Hinduism received support and the Gupta Kings were perfectly tolerant about the three religions prevalent at that time, but they were beyond doubt zealous Hindus who were guided by the Brahmin advisors and skilled in the Sanskrit language.

The Jainism remained confined to the merchant communities of western India. Christianity had also arrived in India but it was confined to the Malabar Region.

Changes in Hinduism during Gupta Era

However, Hinduism also underwent some important changes during these times. The sacrifice was replaced by Worship and mediation of the Brahmins was somewhat replaced by Devotion and Bhakti. The Shakti cult emerged in the Gupta era, which was based upon the fact that the male can be activated only through union with females. Therefore, this was the beginning of worship of wives / consorts of Indian Gods such as Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga, Kali and other goddesses. The worship of Mother Goddess, which was prevalent in the Harappan India, finally got incorporated in the Hinduism by Guptas times.

By the end of 5^th century, Tantrism had also become prominent.

Rise of Occult Practices

The emergence of Tantrism and worship of female deities also led to occult practices, which kept sexual union in the center. The sexual rites started becoming prominent and now they started taking shape of religious sexuality, which reached its zenith in India by the end of the 6^th and 7^th century, as evident from numerous temple arts centered on the religious sexuality in that era.

Rise of six schools

The six schools of Hindu Philosophy viz. NyayaLiterally means recursion. It is based on texts known as the Nyaya Sutras, which were written by Aksapada Gautama from around the 2nd century AD. ....., VaisheshikaVaisheshsika is a kind of Atomism. It was proposed by Maharishi Kanaad. It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a ....., Sankya, YogaYuj means "control" and Yoga also mean to "add". This philosophy is very close to SamkhyaSamkhya means Enumeration. The founder of the Sankya school of Philosophy was Maharishi Kapil. There is some distinct feature of this philosophy: It strongly proponents ..... and can be easily distinguished as Yoga= Samkhya + ....., MimansaMimansa means investigation or enquiry. The primary enquiry is into the nature of dharma based on close theology of the Vedas. It has two divisions, ..... and VedantaVedanta means Veda end or the purpose or goal of the Vedas. It was given by Badrayana or Maharishi Vyasa, who is one of the ..... started taking definitive shape because of the philosophical debates between the Hindu and Buddhists on the question of presence of God, attaining salvation, karma, fate, Birth and Death and rebirth.

Society and Economy during Gupta Era

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Caste System

As Fa Hien, mentions that Chandals lived at the outskirts of the society in miserable conditions and were segregated from the society proved that in Gupta Era the caste system had crystalized and became very rigid with Brahmins getting the top position in the society.

International Trade:

Gupta had a flourishing Roman Trade. The Trade contacts developed during the Kushana Period continued and Chandragupta II's conquest in western India further added to this trade. The people were prosperous and they were free to grow and flourish. The imporant port towns were Brigukachchaha, Kalyana & Sind, which were bulk trade centers with Romans.

Ujjain had become a major commercial center and it was linked to southern and northern India. Nasik, Paithan, Pataliputra, Benares were other major trade centers. Trade was badly affected by the Huna InvasionsThe Huna Invasions on India during Gupta Era The Hunas had poured down from the steppes of Central Asia through the Northwestern passes and devastated the ...... Silk, Leather goods, Fur, Iron Products, Ivory, pearl, Spices and Indigo were major export items. The Port of Tamralipti was a good source of Trade with East Asia. Most of the commodities were taxed One Fifth of the value as a toll in international Trade.

Agriculture:

Agriculture was the main occupation in Gupta Empire and there was no governmental interference. The land was fertile and means of irrigation were simple.

Occupation:

Gupta period had many cloth centers and silk industry witnessed a significant development during this period. The Mandsor Inscriptions gives account that Gupta people were helped to a great extent for the growth of Silk Industry. Gold, silver and Copper was used in making ornaments and issuing coins. The Gold coins show the pomp, power and prosperity of the empire.

The Coins of SamudraguptaSamudragupta (reign 335-380 AD) was son of Chandragupta –I and Kumaradevi. He ascended the throne in 335 AD. Before his death, probably 4 or 5 ..... and Kumaragupta issued after the Ashvamedha depict the horse tied to a Yupastambha. The coins of Chandragupta-II bearA pessimist market operator who expects the market price of shares to decline. The term also refers to the one who has sold shares which ..... Garuda preying a snake.

Guild System during Gupta Empire

In ancient history, the glimpses of guild systems are seen in Jatakas Tales. Guilds refer to organizations of artisans, and traders, which have high place in the society. In Gupta Era, the activities of Guilds were increased and these activities are recorded in various literature, inscription, clay seals etc. There is a mention of Guild of architects in Raghuvamsa. The Indore Copper plate inscription mentions about a guild of oilmen. The Mandsor Inscription mentions the guild of silk weavers. The guild system declined after the Gupta Period.

Gupta Administration

May 23, 2013 1 Comment

There was an efficient administration established in the Gupta Empire. All powers were centred in the Kings but, the rulers did not interfere in the administrations of those regions which accepted their suzerainty. Elaborate administration system was evolved in the regions which were under the direct control of the Gupta Kings. The element of divinity was attached to the kings and they were looked as Gods and God's representatives. The Kings adopted high-sounding titles such as Maharajadhiraj, Paramabhattaraka, Chakravarti, Paramesvara etc. The King was assisted by a council of Ministers. The minister's office was almost hereditary. The supreme judicial power was invested in the King but the Mahadandnayaka carried out the judicial functions. The Gupta Kings created two new classes Sandhivigrahika (Minister of War and Peace) and Kumaramatyas (Offices of the crown Prince). Civil and criminal crimes were demarcated in Gupta Empire.

The following table presents the list of important officials:

Official	Functions
Mahabaladhikrita	Commander in Chief
Mahadandnayaka	Chief Justice
Mahapratihar	Maintainance of Royal Palaces
Mahasandhivigrahika or Sandhivigrahaka	War and Peace
Dandpashika	Head of Police department
Bhadagaradhikreta	Royal Treasury
Vinaysthitisansthapaka	Education Department
Sarvadhyaksha	Inspector of all central departments
Mahashwapati	Cavalary
Mahamahipalapati	Elephants
Vinayapura	One who represented guests to King’s court
Yuktapurusha	Accounts of war booty
Khadyapakika	Royal Kitchen
Ranbhandagarika	Arms and ammunitions stores
Mahanarpati	Infantry

The empire was divided into a number of provinces, which were called Bhuktis. Each Bhukti was further divided into Vishaya or Bhoga which was also known as Adhisthana or Pattana. The smaller level was Vithi which referred to a Tehsil.

A Bhukti was placed under Uparaka and Vishaya under Vishayapati. The village level disputes were solved by the village headmen called gramapati or gramadhyaksha and this was the smallest administration unit. Kutumbis and Mahattaras are other words used for similar village level officers. Chiefs of the Guilds were called Nagarseths who represented the Guild in the urban trading circles. The Sarthavaha also represented the trading communities. The Prathamakulika represented the crafting communities (artisans) and Prathamakayastha represented Government official community.Pustapala were junior (district level) record officers. The terms Nivartana, Kulyavapa and Dronavapa were used for Land measurements. The Araghatta or Ghati Yantras were the instruments of irrigation which were known earlier and now became more popular in Gupta Era.

Types of Taxes in Gupta Era

Bali: The Bali which was voluntary in Maurya era and was given to the King became compulsory in Gupta Era.
Bhaga: King's share in all produce of the cultivators. It was 1/6^th part of produce.
Bhoga: Bhoga refers to the tax in kind of gifts, flowers, woods, fruits etc.
Hiranya: This was thetax paid in cash (Gold) Hiranya means Gold.
Halivakara: Hal means a Plough, so Halivakra was a kind of tax slab, those who owned a plough used to pay tax.
Kara: It might have been some irregular tax charged from villagers.
Shulka: It was custom or toll tax very much similar to Chungi in modern times.
Udinanga: It might be a social security kind of tax.
Klipta: It was related to sale and purchase of lands.

Navaratnas of Chandragupta Vikramaditya

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Chandragupta-II was known for his deep interest in art and culture and nine gems or Navratna adorned his court. The various fields of these 9 gems prove that Chandragupta gave patronage to arts and literature. Brief description about the nine Ratnas is as follows

Amarsimha

Amarsimha was a Sanskrit lexicographer and a poet and his Amarkosha is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, homonyms and synonyms. It is also called Trikanda as it has 3 parts viz. Kanda 1, Kanda 2 and Kanda 3. It has 10 thousand words in it.

Dhanvantri

Dhanvantri was a great Physician.

Harisena

Harisena is known to have composed the Prayag Prasasti or Allahabad Pillar Inscription. The title of this inscription of Kavya, but it has both prose and verse. The whole poem is in one sentence including first 8 stanzas of poetry and a long sentence and a concluding stanza. Harisena in his old age was in the court of Chandragupta and describes him as Noble, and asks him "You Protect all this earth".

Kalidasa

Kalidasa is the immortal poet and playwright of India and a peerless genius whose works became famous worldwide in modern world. Translation of Kalidasa's works in numerous Indian and Foreign Languages have spread his fame all of the word and now he ranks among the top poets of all times. Here we should note that Rabindranath Tagore, not only propagated the works of Kalidasa but also expounded their meanings and philosophy that made him an immortal poet dramatists.

Kahapanaka

Kahapanka was an astrologer. Not many details about him are found.

Sanku

Sanku was in the field of Architecture.

Varahamihira

Varahamihira (died 587) lived in Ujjain and he wrote three important books: Panchasiddhantika, Brihat Samhita, and Brihat Jataka. The Panchasiddhantaka is a summary of five early astronomical systems including the Surya Siddhanta. Another system described by him, the Paitamaha Siddhanta, appears to have many similarities with the ancient Vedanga Jyotisha of Lagadha. Brihat Samhita is a compilataion of an assortment of topics that provides interesting details of the beliefs of those times. Brihat Jataka is a book on astrology which appears to be considerably influenced by Greek astrology.

Vararuchi

Vararuchi is the name of another gem of Chandragupta Vikramaditya who was a grammarian and Sanskrit scholar. Some historians have identified him with Katyayana. Vararuchi is said to be the author of Prakrit Prakasha, which is first Grammar of Prakrit Language.

Vetalbhatta

Vetalbhatta was a magician.

Chandragupta Vikramaditya

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Chandragupta-II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya)

Chandragupta II, the great was son of Samudragupta and Datta Devi. Not much is known about the character but the corroborated facts about his life prove that he was a strong, vigorous ruler and was well qualified to govern and extend his empire.

Before Chandragupta II, his elder brother Ramagupta ascended the throne after death of Samudragupta. Through, not many details about Ramagupta are available; the drama Devichandraguptam of Vishakhadatta gives an account that at Shringararupakam, Ramagupta was badly defeated by a Saka chieftain. To secure the people, he agreed to surrender his queen Druvadevi to the Sakas. Chandragupta II objected this and, Chandragupta-II in disguise of queen Druvadevi entered enemy's camp and killed the Saka king to restore the huge empire, queen and the dynasty. Ramagupta is portrayed in this drama as a Coward king and impotent. Chandragupta II killed his brother and married to his widow, Druvadevi.

Chandragupta reign covered a wide territory whose northern limit was Vahlakas Country, Southern Limit was the Ocean, Western Limit was the Mouth of Indus and Eastern Limit was Vanga. Marraiage alliances and conquests were one of the ways of Chandragupta II to extend his power and kingdom. His daughter Prabhavati was married to a Vaktaka prince. The prince died in due course and his young son became the ruler but the virtual ruler was Prabhavati. This helped Chandragupta II to exercise indirect rule over the Vaktataka Kingdom also. The most important event of Chandragupta II's reign was conquest of Sakas. He destroyed the Saka chieftain Rudrasena III and annexed his kingdom.

His victory over Malwa helped in prosperity of the Malwa region and Ujjain became a commercial hub. Some scholars call Ujjain his second capital. Chinese traveler Fa Hien had visited India during the time of Chandragupta II. Numerous scholars and artists adorned the court of Chandragupta.

Chandragupta II and Mahrauli Inscription

The Mahrauli Iron Pillar was originally placed on a hill near the Beas and was brought to Delhi by a King of Delhi ^{the Gupta Empire by Radhakumud Mookerji}. This pillar credits Chandragupta with the following:

Conquest of the Vanga Countries by his battling alone against the confederacy of the enemies united against him.
Conquest of Vahlakas in a fight that ran across seven mouths of Sindhu.
Spread his fame to southern seas.
Attained Ekadhirajjyam (United Kingdom) by prowess of his arms.
This pillar was established by Chandragupta as Vishnupada in the honor of Lord Vishnu.

Observations of Fa Hien's visit during Vikramaditya reign

Pataliputra was considerably neglected by the warrior kings like Samudragupta and Vikramaditya, but it continued to be a magnificent and populous city though out the reign of Chandragupta II.Later Patliputra was reduced to reigns in the wake of the Hun invasions in the 6th century. However, Pataliputra was rebuilt and revived by Shershah Suri as today's Patna.
The accounts of Fa Hien give a contemporary account of the administration of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Fa Hien (337 – ca. 422 AD) was so much absorbed in his quest for Buddhist books, legends, and miracles that he could not mention the name of the mighty monarch in whose rule he lived for 6 years. The picture he depicted cannot solve all the queries of the historians of today yet, they give a vivid picture of the state of the country.
At Pataliputra, he saw and was impressed by Asoka's palace so it is sure that Asoka's palace was in existence even in the Gupta Era. He also describes about 1 stupa and 2 monasteries nearby , also ascribed to Asoka. He mentioned about 600-700 monks living there and learning their lectures from teachers from all quarters. He mentions that towns of Magadha were largest in the area of Gangetic Plains and he calls it central India. He mentions that there were a lot of charitable institutions, rest houses, and there was an excellent Free Hospital in the Capital which was endowed by benevolent citizens. The poor and helpless patients suffering from all kinds of illnesses were taken care of and doctors attended them and they were given food and medicine as per their wants.
This depiction proves the earliest foundation of Charity and this charity was first of its kind in the word which spoke of characters of the citizens of the Gupta Era. India's is great as far as Charity was concerned and as we are told, earliest charitable hospital in Europe or anywhere else in the word was opened in 10th century.
Fa Hien further explains that the population of the western part (Malwa) lived happily and did not worry. He mentions that they don't have to register their household and not to have attend any magistrate. People did not lock their houses. The passports and those who were willing to say may stay and those willing to go may go did not bind them. Fa Hien further mentions that no one kills the living things, or drinks wine or eats Onion or garlic. They don't keep pigs and fowls, there is no dealing of cattle, and there are no butchers. Only Chandals did all these.
Fa Hien mentions about the Chandala, who dwelt apart and they were required to keep a piece of wood as a warning of their approach so that other folk might not get polluted. Chandals were the only offenders of Dharma, as per Fa Hien. About administration, Fa Hien mentions that the authorities interfered as little as possible with the subject and they were left free to prosper and grow rich in their own way.

Fa Hien studied Sanskrit for 3 years at Pataliputra and two years at the Port of Tamralipti without let or hindrance. The Roads were clear and safe for the passengers. The accounts of Fa Hien give a clear indication that India was probably never governed better than the era of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. The prosperity of the Indians and tranquility of the empire have been testified by the account of Fa-Hien and his unobstructed itinerary all around gives the details about the Golden Era of Mother India.

9 Gems (Navratnas) of Chandragupta Vikramaditya

Chandragupta II was known for his deep interest in art and culture and nine gems or Navratna adorned his court. The various fields of these 9 gems prove that Chandragupta gave patronage to arts and literature. Brief description about the nine Ratnas is as follows

Amarsimha

Dhanvantri

Dhanvantri was a great Physician.

Harisena

Kalidasa

Rabindranath Tagore, not only propagated the works of Kalidasa but also expounded their meanings and philosophy that made him an immortal poet dramatists.

Kahapanaka

Kahapanka was an astrologer. Not many details about him are found.

Sanku

Sanku was in the field of Architecture.

Varahamihira

Vararuchi

Vetalbhatta

Vetalbhatta was a magician.

Kumaragupta –I (415-455 AD)

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I or Mahedraditya. The period assigned to him is 415-455 AD and his reign spanned for a long period of 40 years. He was an able ruler and there is no doubt that his empire suffered no diminution but extended. Like his grandfather, he celebrated the horse sacrifice (Ashvamedha) as an assertion to his paramount supremacy. The records furnish that at the close of his reign, Kumaragupta's dominion suffered severely from the invasion of Huna Hordes, all over North India. The invaders from South India also disturbed him. He issued coins with images of killing a lion. He also issued a coin which bear the picture of Kartikeya.

Skandagupta: (455-467 AD)

Kumaragupta–I was succeeded by Skandagupta. Skandagupta was the last powerful king of the Gupta Empire. He assumed the title of Vikramaditya, Devraj and Sakapan and subdued the invaders (Pushyamitras and Hunas) and brought back the peace and glory of his father. He faced invasion of White Huns, the central Asian tribes. He issued 4 types of Gold coins and 4 types of Silver coin. Bhitari Inscription details about the prowess of Skandagupta. After his death in 467 AD, the Gupta empire declined rapidly.

Samudragupta

Samudragupta (reign 335-380 AD) was son of Chandragupta –I and Kumaradevi. He ascended the throne in 335 AD. Before his death, probably 4 or 5 years back, Chandragupta-I had publicly announced that Samudragupta would be his heir apparent and thus abdicated the throne in his favor. This was justified by the killer instincts of Samudragupta who displayed a greater degree of skill in the arts of both peace and war. But this nomination was perhaps not liked by many and coins of an obscure prince Kacha say that there was some trouble over the succession.

Samudragupta was the greatest ruler of the Gupta Dynasty and ruled till around 380 AD.

The western scholars equate him with Napoleon and call him Indian Napoleon due to the extensive military conquests. His court poet and minister Harisena composed the Allahabad pillar Inscription or Prayag Prasasti. The Pillar was an Asokan Pillar erected by AsokaAshokavardhana or Asoka was governor of Taxila and Ujjain during the reign of his father Bindusara. The Sri Lankan texts represent Asoka as "wading through ..... six century before him.

This Inscription is a eulogy of Samudragupta and mentions about the conquests of Samudragupta and boundaries of the Gupta Empire. As per this inscription, Samudragupta defeated 9 kings in North, 12 Kings in South, reduced all the Atavika states to vassalage. It also mentions that more than five states in the frontier states surrendered and accepted his suzerainty. He had close contact with the kingdom of Ceylon and South East Asian colonies. The eulogy of Harisena describes him as hero of 100 battles. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna, this has been testified by a seal of Samudragupta bearing a Horse. This was probably first Ashvamedha after Pushyamitra Shunga.
He is depicted in his coins playing VeenaVeena is the most authentic of all Indian instruments and its origin can be traced to India's Vedic period. This Indian instrument went through a ...... He allowed the king of Ceylon to build a monastery at Bodhgaya.

Another term used by Harisena for him is Kaviraja, which testified him as a patron of poetic arts and a poet himself. Samudragupta also assumed the title of Vikramanka. The reign of Samudragupta was from Brahmaputra to Chambal and from Himalaya to Narmada in south and he subdued the Shakas and Kushanas. The dominion under the direct government of Samudragupta in the middle of the 4^th century was thus comprised of all the populous and fertile areas of the Northern India.

He established diplomatic relations with the Kushana Kings of Gandhar and Kabul and also the Buddhist king of Ceylon.

In 330 AD, Meghavarna, the Buddhist King of Ceylon had sent two monks, one of whose was his brother to visit a monastery built by Asoka. But they got scant hospitality and returned with complaints. Later, Meghavarna sent a mission laden with gems and gifts to Samudragupta with a request to built a monastery on the Indian Soil. The flattered Samudragupta gave permission.

This monastery was built near the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya. The purpose was recorded in a copper plate and it described the monastery with a height of 3 stories and containing 6 halls.

When Huen TsangHuen Tsang or Xuanzang was a Chinese Buddhist Traveler who belongs to early Tang period of China. He was born in Henan province. He was ..... visited it he saw it occupied by Thousands of Monks and it extended ample hospitality to visiting monks.

Shaka embassy to Samudragupta:

The Saka dynasty which was overthrown in 395 had been originally founded in the first century by a chief named Bhumaka. Bhumaka was followed by Nahapana and Nahapana was destroyed by an Andhra King Gautamiputra Satkarni in 125 AD. However, the local government fell into the hands of Chastana and his descendants. In the Middle of the second century, Satrap Rudradaman who was grandson of Chastana defeated his Andhra Rival Vashishtiputra Satakarni, who was eventually married to his daughter. Rudradaman firmly established his power in west (Malwa, Kutch, Sindh, Konkan and other parts). The capital of Chastana and his descendants was Ujjain, which was one of the important commercial centers.

Samudragupta was not able to undertake the conquest of the west and had received an embassy from Rudrasena, descendant of Rudradaman. But the rivalry did not ended and Chandragupta II, son of Samudragupta finally crushed his western rivals.

Political History of Imperial Guptas

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The founder of Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. But there were other early Guptas mentioned in many inscriptions such as Shiva Gupta in Nasik Inscription and Puru Gupta in Karle Inscription. The origin of Gupta is shrouded in mystery. The brief description about the Kings of Imperial Guptas is as follows:

Sri Gupta (240-280 AD)

Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty. The details about the Sri-Gupta, the first ruler of the Gupta Dynasty come from the accounts of ITsing who came to India in around 690 AD. Sri Gupta has been identified with Che-li-ki-to of ITsing, who as per his details, had built a temple 500 years back from is visit for Chinese Pilgrims. Some of the scholars are of the view that Sri-Gupta was a feudatory of the Kushanas.

Ghatotkacha: (c. 280-319 A.D.)

Ghatotkacha was son of Sri Gupta and he succeeded him after his death. Not many details are available about Ghatotkacha.

Chandragupta I (c. 319-335 AD)

Chandragupta-I was son of Ghatotkacha and is considered to be the real founder of Gupta Empire. He was most powerful monarch and assumed the title of Maharajadhiraj. The earlier kings were given the titles Maharaja only. Chandragupta –I can be called the first independent ruler of the Gupta Dynasty. He was married to Licchhavi princes Kumara Devi and this helped him to get influence and extend the dominion. Samudragupta was born of this dominion. This is proved by the inscriptions of Samudragupta, in which he proudly described himself as Licchavidauhitra, but not at Guptaputra.

Gupta Era

Chandragupta-I ascended to the throne in 319-320 AD. The Valabhi Era of Gujarat has been identified coterminous with the Gupta Era. The Valabhi kings were feudatories of the Guptas and they might have used it as era of their overlords. Dr. Fleet has treated with this at length and has established that beginning of this era is Saka era 242, which means 242 +78 = 320 AD. This coincides with the Nepal Era of Jaydev-I that is 320 AD.

The first year of the Gupta Era may be taken as February 26, 320 AD to March 13, 321 AD, of which the first date is coronation of Chandragupta.

Samudragupta: (335-380 AD)

Samudragupta was son of Chandragupta –I and Kumaradevi. He ascended the throne in 335 AD. Before his death, probably 4 or 5 years back, Chandragupta-I had publicly announced that Samudragupta would be his heir apparent and thus abdicated the throne in his favor. This was justified by the killer instincts of Samudragupta who displayed a greater degree of skill in the arts of both peace and war. Read more about Samudragupta here

Chandragupta-II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya)

Kumaragupta –I (415-455 AD)

Skandagupta: (455-467 AD)

Origin of Imperial Guptas

The one century gap between the extinction of Kushana & Satavahanas (around 220-230 AD), till the rise of the Imperial Gupta Dynasty a century later, is known to be one of the darkest in the whole of history of India. After the disintegration of the Mauryas, the Kushanas kept the North united and Satavahanas kept the Deccan united. Further south there were three Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas. In north, the Malvas, Yaudheyas, Kunidas etc. contributed to the extinction of Kushanas and in Deccan, the Vakatas and Ikshwaku contributed to the death of Satavahana dynasty. This
dark period of one century was followed by a dawn of classical age which is also known as the Golden Age of Indian HistoryIndian History. The classical age refers to the period between 320 AD to 550 AD when India was united again under the Gupta Dynasty. This period marks the crystallization of Hindu Culture and known for developments in all walks of life including the science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy. The founder of this dynasty was Sri Gupta. But there were other early Guptas mentioned in many inscriptions such as Shiva Gupta in Nasik Inscription and Puru Gupta in Karle Inscription. The origin of Gupta is shrouded in mystery.

Though, the earlier origins of the family of the Guptas are not traceable, yet it is now almost accepted that the Gupta Kings were of a Gotra known as Dharana. It is stated in the Poona Copper Plate Inscription of Prabhavatigpta. Prabhavatigpta was a Vaktaka queen who was daughter of Chandra Gupta II and his wife Kubernaga, who was from the Naga family. The views of the different scholars regarding the origin of the Guptas have been summarized in the following table:

Scholar	View
A.S. Altekar	Gupta were vaishyas as the ancient texts mention that the surname ending with Gupta were Vaishyas.
Dr. H C Raichaudhury	Guptas were Brahmins
R C Tripathi	Guptas were Brahmins
Dr. V Upadhyaya, Hira Chand Ojha	Guptas were Kshatriyas
K P Jayaswal & Dasharatha Sharma	Guptas were Jats and same Gotra still exists in Rajasthan
R C Mazumdar	Guptas were from Ikshwaku Clan
D. R. Regmi	They are closely related to the Abhira Kings of Nepal.

The Kshatriya Origin of the Guptas has been maintained on the account that Chandragupta II wedded to a princess named Kumara Devi, who belonged to an ancient Licchhavi clan. The Licchhavi clan was celebrated during the period of BimbisaraBimbisara was the first great king of the Haranyaka Dynasty. Most sources agree that Bimbisara was son of Bhattiya who made his son Bimbisara, a ..... and AjatshatruThe period assigned to Ajatshatru's rule is 491 BC to 461 BC. He was son of Bimbisara's wife Vaidehi so, the Buddhist texts mention his ..... but for next 9 centuries the history is lost. Therefore, it is the marriage of Kumaradevi with the Chandragupta II, which has been the basisIn a futures market, basis is defined as the cash price (or spot price) of whatever is being traded minus its futures price for the ..... of arguments that Guptas were Kshatriyas.

Satavahana Empire

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Basic Information about Satavahana Dynasty

Satavahana followed the Mauryas in Deccan of India. Satavahana dynasty ruled from Pune in Maharastra to Coastal Andhra Pradesh in the second century BC onwards. This dynasty was built up on the ruins of the Maurya Empire and around 1^st century AD, they were the most prominent in the Modern Andhra Pradesh Region.

They have been mentioned as Sātavāhanas, Sātakarnīs, Andhras and Andhrabhrityas in the Puranas and Coins.
Most of the information about the Satavahana kings is interwoven with myths and the information has been collected by a large number of coins minted in Lead, Silver and an alloy of copper.
The origin of Satavahanas is a mystery but they are considered to be Brahmins and most kings use the names of their mothers with their names.
The coins issued by Satavahanas had Bilingual legends. The name of the Kings was mentioned in Prakrit as well as some south Indian Language.
Satavahana Kings promoted Buddhism. Nagarjunkonda and Amaravati l became important Buddhist centers during the Satavahana Era.

Simuka

Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana Dynasty and he is believed to have destroyed the Shunga Power. He did so with the aid of the Rathikas and Bhojakas. He reigned for around 23 years and was beheaded by his brother Kanha, who succeeded him.

Kanha:

Kanha was the second ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty. He extended the empire to further south. He was succeeded by Simuka's son Satkarni-I.

Satkarni-I

Satkarni-I or Sri Satkarni was son of Simuka and was a great ruler among the Early Satavahanas. Naganika was the name of his queen and he has been described as the Lord of Dakshinpatha. Kanha extended the empire to further south, Malwa and Narmada valley. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna and Rajsuya Yajna.

Satkarni II

Satkarni II was the longest ruling king of the Satavahana Dynasty and date of his accession is considered to be 166 BC. He has been mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription of the kharvela, in which he is depicted as enemy of Kharvela. In this inscription, it is mentioned that Kharvela disregarded Satkarni and dispatched to the western regions an army of strong cavalry. Satkarni II was succeeded by Lamobodara followed by Apilaka and some other rulers like Hala.

Hala:

Hala was one more great king of the Satavahanas who was 17th King of the Satavahana line. He had compiled the "Gatha saptasati" or Gaha Sattasai which mainly a text on love theme. Gatha saptasati is in Prakrat. He is also mentioned in another text Lilavati. These rulers were small rulers only and are considered to be under the suzerainty of Kanvas. The expansion of the Satavahanas was checked just after Satkarni II. The Shakas pushed them southwards and the western Deccan was occupied by the Shaka King Nahapana.

Gautamiputra Satkarni (Reign 78-102 AD)

The lost power of Satavahana was revived by Gautamiputra Satkarni who is described as the Destroyer of the Shaka, Pahalava and Yavana Power. Gautamiputra Satkarni is known to have made a total and sharp recovery of the Satvahans. His achievements have been mentioned in the Nasik Inscription, by his mother Gautami. His empire extended from Eastern Malwa, Western Malwa, Narmada Valley, Vidarbha, Western Rajputana, Saurastra and even Kalinga. Nasik Prasasti describes Gautamiputra as the ruler of the Aparanta, Anupa, Saurashtra, Kukura, Akara, and Avanti. In south his reign was up to Kanchi in South. He assumed the title of raja-raja and Maharaja. After Gautamiputra Satkarni, the Puranic inscription name other Satavahanas such as Pulumayi, Sri Satkarni, Siva Sri, Sivaskanda Satkarni , Madhariptra Sakasena, Sri Yajna Satkarni. One more important is Vasithiputra Pulumayi-II.

Pulumayi-II

Pulumayi-II is known as Vasithiputta or Vashishthi Putra Satkarni. He was son of Gautamiputra Satkarni and was an efficient king like his father. He extended the power of Satvahanas to further south and it was now extended up to Bellary district of Modern Karnataka. The Girnar Inscription of Rudradaman mentions that Rudradaman defeated the Dakshinapathpati Satkarni twice, but did not kill him because of the close family relationship. This has been corroborated as "that Pulumayi-II was married to daughter of Rudradaman. (However, there is confusion in this) Pulumayi-II has been described in largest number of inscription and this proves that he had a vast empire. In the evening of Pulumayi-II 's life, the Shakas revived under Chastana. The last Satavahana Ruler was Pulumayi-IV. Not many details have been found about him except that he built a tank in Vepura.

The Legacy of Satavahana Kings

Satavahanas are considered to be the flag bearers of Aryanism to Deccan. They were the first Native Indians who had issued the coins with portraits of their kings. All the coins of Satavahanas used Prakrit dialect and also on backside the southern language (Telugu or Kannada). Prakrat seems to be the official language of Satavahanas. The Satavahanas worshipped the Hindu Deities such as Rama, Krishna, Vasudeva etc. but they also patronized the Buddhism. The Nagarjunkonda and Amaravati became the important centers of Buddhism during the reign of Satavahanas and their successors. Saatavahana Built many Chaitya and Viharas. Most of them were rock cut from the solid rock in North Western Deccan and Maharashtra. The Karle Chaitya of 1^st century BC is one of the most important Chaitya. The Viharas of the 1 century AD at Nasik bear the inscription of the Gautami Putra Satkarni and Nahapana. The Amaravati Stupa was built in the reign of Satavahanas.

Satavahanas: Administration, Economy and Life

Satavahanas administration was simple and inspired by the Mauryas. The King was the protector of the religion and had divine attributes. He possessed the qualities of ancient Gods. The Kingdom was divided into the Janpadas and subdivided into Aharas. The ruler of each Ahara was an Amatya.

Ahara was divided into Grama which was under the headmen called Gamika.

Two feudatories viz. Mahasenapati and Mahataravalara were created in the Satavahana Dynasty.

King was called Rajan or Raja and he had the right to mint the coins.
A Senapati was appointed as the provincial governor.
Gandhika have been mentioned as the traders of perfume and they were prosperous.
Gautamiputra Satkarni is claimed to have re-established the four fold Varna System and this
The most important features of the state formation under Satavahanas were:
- It was a result of a continuous process.
- It was influenced by Mauryan Administration
- It was influenced by North India
Uddiyan was an important wool making center.
Gaulmikas were administrators of the rural areas under the Satavahanas.

Important Points:

Satavahanas ruled in Modern Andhra Pradesh , but most of the inscriptions of Satavahanas have been found in Maharashtra.

Nanaghat Inscription of Naganika (wife of Satkarni-I) has been found near Pune (District).

The Two cave inscriptions found at Nasik are of Gautamiputra Satkarni. At Nasik, Inscription of Pulumayi II has been found.

The Karle cave inscription is of Vashishtiputra Pulumayi II.

The office of the Amatya appears or the first time in the Satavahana inscriptions.

Gandhara School of Art

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Mathura School of Art Vs. and Gandhara School of Art

The Gandharan Buddha image was inspired by Hellenistic realism, tempered by Persian, Scythian, and Parthian models. Sculptors constructed Buddhist images with anatomical accuracy, spatial depth, and foreshortening. In this art, Buddha's curls were altered into wavy hair. The Buddha or Gandhar art is sometimes very thin, which is opposite in Mathura art. It looks like the Mathura, Gandhara arts cross-fertilized in due course of time, and the bulky Mathura Buddha gradually gave way to the slender elegance of the Gandharan image. The result of this synthesis ennobled, refined, and purified the Buddha image that appeared in the Gupta period. This Gupta style became the model for Southeast Asian Buddha images.

Salient Features

Gandhara School was based on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating foreign techniques and an alien spirit. It is also known as Graeco-Buddhist School of art.
The foreign influence is evident from the sculptures of Buddha in which they bearA pessimist market operator who expects the market price of shares to decline. The term also refers to the one who has sold shares which ..... resemblance to the Greek sculptures. Grey sandstone (Blue-grey Mica schist to be precise) is used in Gandhara School of Art.
The Bamyan Buddha of Afghanistan were the example of the Gandhara School. The other materials used were Mud, Lime, Stucco. However, Marble was NOT used in Gandhara art. Terracotta was used rarely. Bimaran Casket has yielded the earliest specimen of the Gandhara Art.

The Various Mudras of Buddha in Gandhar Art

In all the Buddha depicted in the Gandhara Art is shown making four types of hand gestures and this is a remarkable feature in this art. The gestures are as follows:

Abahayamudra : Don't fear
Dhyanamudra : meditation
Dharmachakramudra: a preaching mudra
Bhumisparshamudra: Touching the earth.

Major Centres

Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran, Begram & Taxila were the main centers where art pieces of Gandhara School have been found. Both Shakas and Kushanas were patrons of Gandhara School. The head of the Buddha matched very much with Greek God Apollo.

Mathura School of Art Vs. and Gandhara School of Art

Factor	Mathura School	Gandhara School
Origin	No foreign Influence, however, later it cross fertilized with the Gandhara School.	Strong Greek influence.
	Its development took place indigenously.	Was based on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating foreign techniques and an alien spirit. It is also known as Graeco-Buddhist School of art.
	Initially inspired by Yaksha Images	Assimilating various traits of Acamenian, Parthian and Bactrian traditions into the local tradition is a hallmark of the Gandhara style
		Initially inspired by Hellenistic features.
Material Used	Spotted Red Sandstone	Blue-grey Mica schist / Grey Sandstone
Image Features	Early period: Light volume having fleshy body	Finer details and realistic images
	Later Period: Flashiness reduced.	Buddha carved out in various Mudras.
	Not much attention to detailed sculpting. Buddha is stout	Curley hair, anatomical accuracy, spatial depth, and foreshortening
		Buddha is sometimes thin
Halo	The halo around the head of Buddha was profusely decorated.	Not decorated, generally.
	Images are less expressive	The images are very expressive,

Amaravati School of art
The third type of sculpture art that Flourished during the Kushana time was Amaravati School of art in the . White Marble was used in this art and the themes were Buddha’s life and Jatakas tales. The curly hairs of Buddha is a feature that is influenced by the Greeks. In this school, the Kings, Princes, Palaces etc. have got prominence.

Mathura School of Art

Contents [hide]

Mathura School of Art Vs. and Gandhara School of Art

Origin and Salient Features of Mathura School of art

At Sanchi, Barhut or Gaya, Buddha was never depicted in a human form but was represented only as a symbol of either two footprints or wheel. Artisans from Mathura initially continued the Mauryan sculptural forms of the Yaksha and Yakshi, until a human image of Buddha appeared, which was independent of other schools of art, but later influenced by the Gandhara School. Thus, Mathura School of art is purely indigenous style. Mathura art reached its peak during the Gupta period (AD 325 to 600).

The material used in this school was the spotted red sandstone. The Mathura School of Art, noted for its vitality and assimilative character, was a result of the religious zeal of Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism. Images of Vaishnava and Shaiva faiths are also found at Mathura but Buddhist images are found in large numbers. The images of Vishnu and Shiva are represented by their weapons. Images of the Buddha, Yakshas, Yakshinis, Shaivite and Vaishnavite deities and portrait statues are profusely sculpted.

Centres of Production

The traditional centre, Mathura, remained the main art production site whereas Sarnath and Kosambi also emerged as important centres of art production.

Sculpting Features

The Jina Image and Indigenous style of Buddha's image was a remarkable feature of Mathura art. The Sarvatobhadrika image of 4 Jinas standing back to back belongs to the Mathura school. The Standing Buddhas of the Sravasthi Sarnath and Kausambhi belong to the Mathura School.

In Mathura School, there is boldness in carving the large images.
The first Mathura image makers never intended to sculpt an anatomically correct human Buddha. Their images were a composite of 32 major and 80 minor laksana, or marks. Later, the Human Buddha images evolved associated with humanly beauty and heroic ideals. Both sitting and standing posture of Buddha's statues were carved out in the Mathura school.

Buddha image at Mathura is modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic features. The early images of the Buddha and the BodhisattvaA Bodhisattva means one who has essence of enlightment. Anyone who has a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all is a ..... are happy, fleshy figures with little spirituality about them. The block like compactness and smooth close-fitting robe, almost entirely devoid of folds, are replicated in the earliest standing Buddha image that belongs to the Mathura school. The volume of the images is projected out of the picture plane, the faces are round and smiling, heaviness in the sculptural volume is reduced to relaxed flesh. The garments of the body are clearly visible and they cover the left shoulder. However, in the second century AD, images got sensual with increased rotundness and became flashier. The extreme fleshiness was reduced by the third century AD and the surface features also got refined. The trend continued in the fourth century AD but later, the massiveness and fleshiness was reduced further and the flesh became more tightened. The halo around the head of Buddha was profusely decorated.

Notable Observations about Mathura School of art

Mathura School of art is purely indigenous style.
Spotted red sandstone has been used in this school.
In these sculptures, Buddha was depicted as Human and the main theme was Buddha and Bodhisattavas.
Both sitting and standing posture of Buddha's statues were carved out in the Mathura school.
The Mathura School of Art, noted for its vitality and assimilative character, was a result of the religious zeal of Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism.
Mathura art, however, reached its peak during the Gupta period (AD 325 to 600).
The Jina Image and Indigenous tyle of Buddhas image was a remarkable features of Mathura art.
The Sarvatobhadrika image of 4 jainjain Jinas standing back to back belongs to the Mathura school.
The Standing Buddhas of the Sravasthi Sarnath and Kausambhi belong to the Mathura School.
The sitting Buddha of Mathura School is in padmasana and soles of the feet have been decorated with Tri ratna and Dharmachakra signs.
The presences of the two attendants by the side of Buddha who hold Chanwars is a feature of the Mathura school and this figure has been later inspired the images of Indian Deities.

Mathura School of Art Vs. and Gandhara School of Art

Factor	Mathura School	Gandhara School
Origin	No foreign Influence, however, later it cross fertilized with the Gandhara School.	Strong Greek influence.
	Its development took place indigenously.	Was based on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating foreign techniques and an alien spirit. It is also known as Graeco-Buddhist School of art.
	Initially inspired by Yaksha Images	Assimilating various traits of Acamenian, Parthian and Bactrian traditions into the local tradition is a hallmark of the Gandhara style
		Initially inspired by Hellenistic features.
Material Used	Spotted Red Sandstone	Blue-grey Mica schist / Grey Sandstone
Image Features	Early period: Light volume having fleshy body	Finer details and realistic images
	Later Period: Flashiness reduced.	Buddha carved out in various Mudras.
	Not much attention to detailed sculpting. Buddha is stout	Curley hair, anatomical accuracy, spatial depth, and foreshortening
		Buddha is sometimes thin
Halo	The halo around the head of Buddha was profusely decorated.	Not decorated, generally.
	Images are less expressive	The images are very expressive,